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Language module

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the structure in the <a href="Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>. For the software design technique supported by some programming languages, see <a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular programming</a>.</div>

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The language module or language faculty is a hypothetical structure in the <a href="Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a> which is thought to contain <a href="Innate" title="Innate">innate</a> capacities for <a href="Language" title="Language">language</a>, originally posited by <a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>. There is ongoing research into brain modularity in the fields of <a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> and <a href="Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, although the current idea is much weaker than what was proposed by Chomsky and <a href="Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a> in the 1980s. In today's terminology, 'modularity' refers to specialisation: <a href="Language_processing_in_the_brain" title="Language processing in the brain">language processing</a> is specialised in the brain to the extent that it occurs partially in different areas than other types of information processing such as visual input. The current view is, then, that language is neither compartmentalised nor based on general principles of processing (as proposed by <a href="George_Lakoff" title="George Lakoff">George Lakoff</a>). It is modular to the extent that it constitutes a specific <a href="Cognitive_skill" title="Cognitive skill">cognitive skill</a> or area in cognition.<a href="#cite_note-Schwarz-Friesel_2008-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goel_2007-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kiely_2014-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meaning_of_a_module">Meaning of a module</h2></div>

The notion of a dedicated language module in the human brain originated with Noam Chomsky's theory of <a href="Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">Universal Grammar</a> (UG). The debate on the issue of modularity in language is underpinned, in part, by different understandings of this concept.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> There is, however, some consensus in the literature that a module is considered committed to processing specialized representations (<a href="Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">domain-specificity</a>)<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fodor1983-6">[6]</a> in an informationally encapsulated way.<a href="#cite_note-Fodor1983-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> A distinction should be drawn between anatomical modularity, which proposes there is one 'area' in the brain that deals with this processing, and functional modularity that obviates anatomical modularity whilst maintaining information encapsulation in distributed parts of the brain.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="No_singular_anatomical_module">No singular anatomical module</h2></div>

The available evidence points toward the conclusion that no single area of the brain is solely devoted to processing language. The <a href="Wada_test" title="Wada test">Wada test</a>, where sodium amobarbital is used to anaesthetise one <a href="Brain_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain hemisphere">hemisphere</a>, shows that the left-hemisphere appears to be crucial in <a href="Language_processing_in_the_brain" title="Language processing in the brain">language processing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Yet, <a href="Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> does not implicate any single area but rather identifies many different areas as being involved in different aspects of language processing.<a href="#cite_note-auto-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> and not just in the left hemisphere.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Further, individual areas appear to subserve a number of different functions.<a href="#cite_note-auto-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Thus, the extent to which language processing occurs within an anatomical module is considered to be minimal. Nevertheless, as many have suggested,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> modular processing can still exist even when implemented across the brain; that is, language processing could occur within a functional module.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="No_double_dissociation_–_acquired_or_developmental">No double dissociation – acquired or developmental</h2></div>

A common way to demonstrate modularity is to find a <a href="Double_dissociation" class="mw-redirect" title="Double dissociation">double dissociation</a>. That is two groups: First, people for whom language is severely damaged and yet have normal cognitive abilities and, second, persons for whom normal cognitive abilities are grossly impaired and yet language remains intact.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Whilst extensive lesions in the left hemisphere perisylvian area can render persons unable to produce or perceive language (global <a href="Aphasia" title="Aphasia">aphasia</a>),<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> there is no known acquired case where language is completely intact in the face of severe non-linguistic deterioration.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Thus, functional module status cannot be granted to language processing based on this evidence.

However, other evidence from developmental studies has been presented (most famously by <a href="Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>) as supporting a language module, namely the purported dissociation between <a href="Specific_Language_Impairment" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific Language Impairment">Specific Language Impairment</a> (SLI), where language is disrupted whilst other mental abilities are not,<a href="#cite_note-van_der_Lely-23">[23]</a> and <a href="Williams_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Williams Syndrome">Williams Syndrome</a> (WS) where language is said to be spared despite severe mental deficits.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> More recent and empirically robust work has shown that these claims may be inaccurate, thus, considerably weakening support for dissociation. For example, work reviewed by Brock<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> and Mervis and Beccera<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> demonstrated that language abilities in WS are no more than would be predicted by non-linguistic abilities. Further, there is considerable debate concerning whether SLI is actually a language disorder or whether its aetiology is due to a more general cognitive (e.g. phonological) problem.<a href="#cite_note-van_der_Lely-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Thus, the evidence needed to complete the picture for modularity – intact language coupled with gross intellectual deterioration – is not forthcoming. Consequently, developmental data offers little support for the notion that language processing occurs within a module.

Thus, the evidence from double dissociations does not support modularity, although lack of dissociation is not evidence against a module; this inference cannot be logically made.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lack_of_information_encapsulation">Lack of information encapsulation</h2></div>

Indeed, if language were a module it would be informationally encapsulated. Yet, there is evidence to suggest that this is not the case. For instance, in the <a href="McGurk_effect" title="McGurk effect">McGurk effect</a>, watching lips say one phoneme whilst another is played creates the percept of a blended phoneme.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Further, Tanenhaus, Spivey-Knowlton, Eberhard and Sedivy (1995) demonstrated visual information mediating syntactic processing. In addition, the putative language module should process only that information relevant to language (i.e., be <a href="Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">domain-specific</a>). Yet evidence suggests that areas purported to subserve language also mediate motor control<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and non-linguistic sound comprehension.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Although it is possible that separate processes could be occurring but below the resolution of current imaging techniques, when all this evidence is taken together the case for information encapsulation is weakened.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_views">Alternative views</h2></div>

The alternative, as it is framed, is that language occurs within a more general cognitive system.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The counterargument is that there appears to be something ‘special’<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> about human language. This is usually supported by evidence such as all attempts to teach animals human languages to any great success have failed (Hauser et al. 2003) and that language can be selectively damaged (a single dissociation)<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> suggesting proprietary computation may be required. Instead of postulating 'pure' modularity, theorists have opted for a weaker version, domain-specificity implemented in functionally specialised neural circuits and computation (e.g. Jackendoff and Pinker's words, we must investigate language "not as a monolith but as a combination of components, some special to language, others rooted in more general capacities").<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Language_center" title="Language center">Language center</a></li>

<li><a href="Motor_theory_of_speech_perception" title="Motor theory of speech perception">Motor theory of speech perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFSchwarz-Friesel2008" class="citation book cs1">Schwarz-Friesel, Monika (2008). Einführung in die Kognitive Linguistik. Dritte, aktualisierte und erweiterte Auflage. Francke. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3825216368</bdi>.</cite>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Altmann, G. T. M. (2001). The mechanics of language: Psycholinguistics in review. The British Journal of Psychology, 92, 129–170.</li>

<li>Bauer, R. M., & Zawacki, T. (2000). Auditory Agnosia and Amusia. In M.J. Farah and T.E. Feinberg (Eds.), Patient-Based Approaches to Cognitive Neuroscience, (pp. 97–106). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>

<li>Breedin, S. D., & Saffran, E. M. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1999-15265-007">Sentence processing in the face of semantic loss: A case study</a>. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 547–62.</li>

<li>Breedin, S. D., Saffran, E. M., & Coslett, H. B. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02643299408251987">Reversal of the concreteness effect in a patient with semantic dementia</a>. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 11, 617–60.</li>

<li>Colledge, E., Bishop, D., Koeppen-Schomerus, G., Price, T., Happe, F., Eley, T., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2002). The structure of language abilities at 4 years: A twin study. Developmental Psychology, 38, 749–757.</li>

<li>Dapretto, M., & Bookheimer, S. Y. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627300808557">Form and content: Dissociating syntax and semantics in sentence comprehension</a>. Neuron, 24, 427–32.</li>

<li>Garrard, P., Carroll, E., Vinson, D. P., & Vigliocco, G. (2004). Dissociating lexico-semantics and lexico-syntax in semantic dementia. Neurocase, 10, 353–362.</li>

<li>Grafman, J., Passafiume, D., Faglioni, P., & Boller, F. (1982) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010945282800178">Calculation disturbances in adults with focal hemispheric damage</a>. Cortex, 18, 37–50.</li>

<li>Griffiths T. D., Rees, A., & Green, G. G. R. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Timothy_Griffiths/publication/228598776_Disorders_of_human_complex_sound_processing/links/0fcfd50b7c19e49360000000/Disorders-of-human-complex-sound-processing.pdf">Disorders of human complex sound processing</a>. Neurocase, 5, 365–378</li>

<li>Hauser, M. D., Chomsky, N., & Fitch, W. T. (2002). The faculty of language: What is it, who has it, and how does it evolve? Science, 298, 1569–1579.</li>

<li>Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://moodle-arquivo.ciencias.ulisboa.pt/1415/pluginfile.php/100399/mod_page/content/12/Hickok2000_Towards%20a%20functional%20neuroanatomy%20of%20speech%20perception.pdf">Towards a functional neuroanatomy of speech perception</a>. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 (4), 131–138.</li>

<li>Hill, E. L. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.gold.ac.uk/2592/1/hill_ijlcd_2001.pdf">Non-specific nature of specific language impairment: A review of the literature with regard to concomitant motor impairments</a>. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders / Royal College of Speech & Language Therapists, 36 (2), 149–171.</li>

<li>Kahn, H. J., & Whitaker, H.A. (1991). Acalculia: an historical review of localization. Brain Cognition, 17, 102–15.</li>

<li>Luzzatti, C., Aggujaro, S., & Crepaldi, D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010945208704313">Verb-noun double dissociations in aphasia: Theoretical and neuroanatomical foundations</a>. Cortex, 42 (6):875–83.</li>

<li>Marcus, G. F. (2006). Cognitive Architecture and Descent with Modification. Cognition, 101, 443–465.</li>

<li>Marslen-Wilson, W.D., & Tyler, L.K. (1987). Against modularity. In J. L.Garfield (Ed.), Modularity in Knowledge Representation and Natural Language Understanding. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.</li>

<li>Martins, I.P. & Farrajota, L. (in press). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/35da/c51daec0d7f6d03f3567af024a9cc011800c.pdf">Proper and common names: A double dissociation</a>. Neuropsychologica.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMattysMelhornWhite2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mattys, Sven L.; Melhorn, James F.; White, Laurence (2007). "Effects of syntactic expectations on speech segmentation". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 33 (4). American Psychological Association (APA): 960–977. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0096-1523.33.4.960">10.1037/0096-1523.33.4.960</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1277">1939-1277</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17683240">17683240</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMattysPleydell-PearceMelhornWhitecross2005" class="citation journal cs1">Mattys, Sven L.; Pleydell-Pearce, Christopher W.; Melhorn, James F.; Whitecross, Sharron E. (2005). "Detecting silent pauses in speech: A new tool for measuring on-line lexical and semantic processing". Psychological Science. 16 (12). SAGE Publications: 958–964. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2005.01644.x">10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01644.x</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0956-7976">0956-7976</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16313660">16313660</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12202560">12202560</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Miozzo, M., & Gordon, P. (2005). Facts, Events, and Inflection: When Language and Memory Dissociate. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 1074–1086.</li>

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<li>Poeppel, D. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15516709cog2505_3">Pure word deafness and the bilateral processing of the speech code</a>. Cognitive Science, 21 (5), 679–693.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRosselliArdila1989" class="citation journal cs1">Rosselli, M.; Ardila, A. (1989). "Calculation deficits in patients with right and left hemisphere damage". Neuropsychologia. 27 (5): 607–617. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0028-3932%2889%2990107-3">10.1016/0028-3932(89)90107-3</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2739887">2739887</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30105809">30105809</a>.</cite></li>

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